The Passing of the
Great Race
By Madison Grant
Part I - Race, Language, And Nationality
Chapter
2
The Physical Basis of Race
In the modern and
scientific study of race we have long discarded the Adamic theory that man is
descended from a single pair, created a few thousand years ago in a mythical
Garden of Eden somewhere in Asia, to spread later over the earth in
successive waves. Many of the races of Europe, both living
and extinct, did come from the East through Asia Minor or by way of the African
littoral, but most of the direct ancestors of existing populations have
inhabited Europe for many thousands of years. During that time numerous races
of men have passed over the scene. Some undoubtedly have utterly vanished,
and some have left their blood behind them in the Europeans of to-day. It is a fact, however, that Asia was the
chief area of evolution and differentiation of man, and that the various
groups had their main development there, and not on the peninsula we call
Europe. We now know, since the elaboration of the
Mendelian Laws of Inheritance, that certain bodily characters, the so-called
unit characters, such as skull shape, stature, eye color, hair color, and
nose form, are transmitted in accordance with fixed mathematical laws, and,
further, that various unit characters which are normally correlated, or
belong together, may, after prolonged admixture with another race, pass down
separately, and form what is known as disharmonic combinations. Such
disharmonic combinations are, for example, a tall brunet, or a short blond;
blue eyes associated with brunet hair, or brown eyes with blond hair. In
modern science the meaning of the word "character" is now limited
to physical instead of mental and spiritual traits as in popular usage. The process of intermixture of unit
characters has gone far in existing populations, and with the ease of modern
methods of transportation this process is going much further in Europe, and
in America. The immediate results of such mixture are not blends, or
intermediate types, but rather mosaics of contrasted characters. Such blends,
if any, as ultimately occur, are too remote to concern us here. The first
result of the crossing of a pure: brunet with a pure blond is to produce
either pure blonds or pure brunets in certain known proportions, instead of
offspring of an intermediate type; or else a third group which may be either
blond or brunet, but which possesses latent characters of the contrasted
type. Such latent or recessive characters often reappear in remote
descendants. In defining race in Europe it is necessary
not only to consider pure groups or pure types, but also the distribution of
unit characters belonging to each particular subspecies of man found there.
The interbreeding of these populations has progressed to such an extent that
in many cases such an analysis of physical characters is necessary to
reconstruct the elements which have entered into their ethnic composition. Sometimes we find a unit character
appearing here and there as the sole remnant of a once numerous race, for
example, the occasional appearance in European populations of a skull of the
Neanderthal type, a race widely spread over Europe 40,000 years ago, or of
the Cro-Magnon type, the predominant race I6,000 years ago. Before the fossil
remains of the Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon races were studied and understood
such reversional specimens were considered pathological, instead of being
recognized as the reappearance of an ancient and submerged type. Unit characters are to all intents and
purposes immutable, and they do not change during the lifetime of a language
or an empire. The skull shape of the Egyptian fellaheen, in the unchanging
environment of the Nile Valley, is absolutely identical in measurements,
proportions and capacity with skulls found in the predynastic tombs dating
back more than six thousand years. There exists to-day a widespread and
fatuous belief in the power of environment, as well as of education and
opportunity to alter heredity, which arises from the dogma of the brotherhood
of man, derived in turn from the loose thinkers of the French Revolution and
their American mimics. Such beliefs have done much damage in the past, and if
allowed to go uncontradicted, may do much more serious damage in the future.
Thus the view that the negro slave was an unfortunate cousin of the white
man, deeply tanned by the tropic sun, and denied the blessings of
Christianity and civilization, played no small part with the sentimentalists
of the Civil War period, and it has taken us fifty years to learn that
speaking English, wearing good clothes, and going to school and to church,
does not transform a negro into a white man. Nor was a Syrian or Egyptian
freedman transformed into a Roman by wearing a toga, and applauding his
favorite gladiator in the amphitheatre. We shall have a similar experience
with the Polish Jew, whose dwarf stature, peculiar mentality, and ruthless
concentration on self-interest are being engrafted upon the stock of the
nation. Recent attempts have been made in the
interest of inferior races among our immigrants to show that the shape of the
skull does change, not merely in a century, but in a single generation. In 191O, the report of the anthropological
expert of the Congressional Immigration Commission, gravely declared that a
round skull Jew on his way across the Atlantic might and did have a round
skull child, but that a few years later, in response to the subtle elixir of
American institutions, as exemplified in an East Side tenement, might and did
have a child whose skull was appreciably longer; and that a long skull south
Italian, breeding freely, would have precisely the same experience in the
reverse direction. In other words, the Melting Pot was acting instantly under
the influence of a changed environment. What the Melting Pot actually does in
practice, can be seen in Mexico, where the absorption of the blood of the
original Spanish conquerors by the native Indian population has produced the
racial mixture which we call Mexican, and which is now engaged in
demonstrating its incapacity for self-government. The world has seen many
such mixtures of races, and the character of a mongrel race is only just
beginning to be understood at its true value. It must be borne in mind that the
specializations which characterize the higher races are of relatively recent
development, are highly unstable and when mixed with generalized or primitive
characters, tend to disappear. Whether we like to admit it or not, the result
of the mixture of two races, in the long run, gives us a race reverting to
the more ancient, generalized and lower type. The cross between a white man
and an Indian is an Indian; the cross between a white man and a negro is a
negro; the cross between a white man and a Hindu is a Hindu; and the cross
between any of the three European races and a Jew is a Jew. In the crossing of the blond and brunet
elements of a population, the more deeply rooted and ancient dark traits are
prepotent or dominant. This is matter of everyday observation, and the
working of this law of nature is not influenced or affected by democratic
institutions or by religious beliefs. As measured in terms of centuries, unit
characters are immutable, and the only benefit to be derived from a changed
environment and better food conditions, is the opportunity afforded a race
which has lived under adverse conditions, to achieve its maximum development,
but the limits of that development are fixed for it by heredity and not by
environment. In dealing with European populations the
best method of determining race has been found to lie in a comparison of
proportions of the skull, the so-called cephalic index. This is the ratio of
maximum length to maximum width taken at the widest part of the skull above
the ears. Skulls with an index of 75 or less, that is, when the width is
three-fourths or less than the length, are considered dolichocephalic, or
long skulls. Skulls of an index of 80 or over are round skulls, or
brachycephalic. Intermediate indices, between 75 and 80, are considered
mesocephalic. These are cranial indices. To allow for the flesh on living
specimens, about two per cent is to be added to the index, and the result is
the cephalic index. In the following pages only long and round skulls are
considered and the intermediate forms, or mesocephs, are assigned to the
dolichocephalic group. This cephalic index, though an extremely
important if not the controlling unit character, is, nevertheless, but a
single character and must be checked up with other somatological traits. Normally,
a long skull is associated with a long face, and a round skull with a round
face. The use of this test, the cephalic index,
enables us to divide the great bulk of the European populations into three
distinct subspecies of man, one northern and one southern, both
dolichocephalic or characterized by a long skull, and a central subspecies
which is brachycephalic, or characterized by a round skull. The first is the Nordic or Baltic
subspecies. This race is long skulled, very tall, fair skinned, with blond or
brown hair and light colored eyes. The Nordics inhabit the countries around
the North and Baltic Seas, and include not only the great Scandinavian and
Teutonic groups, but also other early peoples who first appear in southern
Europe and in Asia as representatives of Aryan language and culture. The second is the dark Mediterranean or
Iberian subspecies, occupying the shores of the inland sea, and extending
along the Atlantic coast until it reaches the Nordic species. It also spreads
far east into southern Asia. It is long skulled like the Nordic race, but the
absolute size of the skull is less. The eyes and hair are very dark or black,
and the skin more or less swarthy. The stature is stunted in comparison to
that of the Nordic race and the musculature and bony framework weak. The third is the Alpine subspecies
occupying all central and eastern Europe, and extending through Asia Minor to
the Hindu Kush and the Pamirs. The Armenoids constitute an Alpine subdivision
and represent the ancestral type of this race which remained in the mountains
and high plateaux of Anatolia and western Asia. The Alpines are round
skulled, of medium height and sturdy build, both as to skeleton and muscles.
The coloration of both hair and eyes was originally very dark and still tends
strongly in that direction, but many light colored eyes, especially gray, are
now found in the Alpine populations of western Europe. While the inhabitants of Europe betray as a
whole their mixed origin, nevertheless the three main subspecies are each
found in large numbers and in great purity, as well as sparse remnants of
still more ancient races represented by small groups or by individuals, and
even by unit characters. These three main groups have bodily
characters which constitute them distinct subspecies of Homo sapiens. Each
has several varieties, but for the sake of clearness the word race and not
the word species or subspecies will hereafter be used nearly, but not quite,
exclusively. In zoology the term species implies the existence of a certain
definite amount of divergence from the most closely related type, but race
does not require a similar amount of difference. In man, where all groups are
more or less fertile when crossed, so many intermediate or mixed types occur
that the word species has too limited a meaning for wide use. Related species
when grouped together constitute subgenera and genera. The old idea that fertility or infertility
of races of animals was the measure of species, is now abandoned. One of the
greatest difficulties in classifying man is his perverse predisposition to
mismate. This is a matter of daily observation, especially among the women of
the better classes, probably because of their wider range of choice. The cephalic index is of less value in the
classification of Asiatic populations, but the distribution of round and long
skulls is similar to that in Europe. The vast central plateau of that
continent is inhabited by round skulls. In fact, Thibet and the western
Himalayas were probably the centre of radiation of all the round skulls of
the world. In India and Persia south of this central area occurs a long skull
race related to Mediterranean man in Europe. Both skull types occur, much intermixed,
among the American Indians, and the cephalic index is of little value in
classifying the Amerinds. No satisfactory explanation of the variability of
the skull shape of this species has as yet been found, but the total range of
variation of physical characters from northern Canada to southern Patagonia
is less than the range of such variation from Normandy to Provence in France.
In Africa the cephalic index is also of
small classification value because all of the populations are characterized
by a long skull. The distinction between a long skull and a
round skull in mankind probably goes back at least to early Paleolithic
times, if not to a period still more remote. It is of such great antiquity
that when new species or races appear in Europe at the close of the
Paleolithic, between IO,OOO and 7,000 years B.C., the skull characters among
them are as clearly defined as they are to-day. The fact that two distinct species of
mankind both have long skulls, as have the north European and the African
negro, is no necessary indication of relationship, and in that instance is
merely a case of parallel specialization. The fact, however, that the Swede
has a long skull and the Savoyard a round skull does prove them to be
descendants of distinct subspecies. The claims that the Nordic race is a mere
variation of the Mediterranean race, and that the latter is, in turn, derived
from the Ethiopian negro, rest upon a mistaken idea that a dolichocephaly in
common must mean identity of origin, as well as upon a failure to take into
consideration many somatological characters of almost equal value with the
cephalic index. In this connection it is well to remark that this
measurement, being merely a ratio, may yield identical figures for skulls
differing in every other proportion and detail, as well as in absolute size
and capacity. Eye color is of very great importance in
race determination, because all blue, gray, or green eyes in the world to-day
came originally from the same source, namely, the Nordic race of northern
Europe. This light colored eye has appeared nowhere else on earth, and is a
specialization of this subspecies of man only, and is consequently one of
extreme value in the classification of European races. Dark colored eyes are
all but universal among wild mammals, and entirely so among the primates,
man's nearest relatives. It is, therefore, an absolute certainty that all the
original races of man had dark eyes. One subspecies of man, and one alone,
specialized in light colored eyes. This same subspecies also evolved light or
blond hair, a character far less deeply rooted than eye color, as blond
children tend to grow darker with advancing years, and populations largely of
Nordic extraction, such as those of Lombardy, upon admixture with darker
races, lose their blond hair more readily than their light colored eyes. Blond hair also comes everywhere from the
Nordic species, and from nowhere else. Whenever we find blondness among the
darker races of the earth we may be sure some Nordic wanderer has passed that
way. When individuals of perfect blond type occur, as sometimes in Greek
islands, we may suspect a recent visit of sailors from a passing ship, but
when only single characters remain spread thinly, but widely, over
considerable areas, like the blondness of the Atlas Berbers or of the
Albanian mountaineers, we must search in the dim past for the origin of these
blurred traits of early invaders. The range of blond hair color in pure
Nordic peoples runs from flaxen and red to shades of chestnut and brown. The
darker shades may indicate crossing in some cases, but absolutely black hair
certainly does mean an ancestral cross with a dark race-in England with the
Mediterranean race. In Nordic populations the women are, in
general, lighter haired than the men, a fact which points to a blond past and
a darker future for those populations. Women in all human races, as the
females among all mammals, tend to exhibit the older, more generalized and
primitive traits of the race's past. The male in his individual development
indicates the direction in which the race is tending under the influence of
variation and selection. It is interesting to note in connection
with the more primitive physique of the female, that in the spiritual sphere
also, women retain the ancient and intuitive knowledge that the great mass of
mankind is not free and equal, but bond and unequal. The color of the skin is a character of
importance, but one that is exceedingly hard to measure as the range of
variation in Europe between skins of extreme fairness and those that are
exceedingly swarthy, is almost complete. In general the Nordic race in its
purity has an absolutely fair skin, and is consequently the Homo albus, the
white man par excellence. Many members of the Nordic race otherwise
apparently pure have skins, as well as hair, more or less dark, so that the
determinative value of this character is uncertain. There can be no doubt
that the quality of the skin and the extreme range of its variation in color
from black, brown, red, yellow to ivory-white are excellent measures of the
specific or subgeneric distinctions between the larger groups of mankind, but
in dealing with European populations it is sometimes difficult to correlate
shades of fairness with other physical characters. It often happens that an individual with
all the Nordic characters in great purity, has a skin of an olive or dark
tint, and it much more frequently happens that we find an individual with
absolutely pure brunet traits in possession of a skin of almost ivory
whiteness and of great clarity. This last combination is very frequent among
the brunets of the British Isles. That these are, to some extent, disharmonic
combinations we may be certain, but beyond that our knowledge does not lead.
Owners, however, of a fair skin have always been, and still are, the objects
of keen envy by those whose skins are black, yellow, or red. Stature is another unit character of
greater value than skin color, and perhaps than hair color, and is one of
much importance in European classification because on that continent we have
the most extreme variations of human height. Exceedingly adverse economic conditions may
inhibit a race from attaining the full measure of its growth, and to this
extent environment plays its part in determining stature, but fundamentally
it is race, always race, that sets the limit. The tall Scot and the dwarfed
Sardinian owe their respective sizes to race, and not to oatmeal or olive
oil. It is probable that the fact that the stature of the Irish is, on the
average, shorter than that of the Scotch, is due partly to economic
conditions, and partly to the depressing effect of a considerable population
of primitive short stock. Mountaineers all over the world tend to be
tall and vigorous, a fact probably due to the rigid elimination of defectives
by the unfavorable environment. In this case altitude would operate like
latitude, and produce the severe conditions which seem essential to human
vigor. The short stature of the Lapps and the Esquimaux may have been
originally attributable to the trying conditions of an Arctic habitat, but in
any event it has long since become a racial character. So far as the main species of Europe are
concerned, stature is a very valuable measure of race. To recapitulate as to this character, the
Mediterranean race is everywhere marked by a relatively short stature,
sometimes greatly depressed, as in south Italy and in Sardinia, and also by a
comparatively light bony framework and feeble muscular development. The Alpine race is taller than the
Mediterranean although shorter than the Nordic, and is characterized by a
stocky and sturdy build. The Nordic race is nearly everywhere
distinguished by great stature. Almost the tallest stature in the world is
found among the pure Nordic populations of the Scottish and English borders,
while the native British of Pre-Nordic brunet blood are, for the most part,
relatively short; and no one can question the race value of stature who
observes on the streets of London the contrast between the Piccadilly
gentleman of Nordic race and the cockney costermonger of the old Neolithic
type. In many cases where these three European
races have become mixed, stature seems to be one of the first Nordic
characters to vanish, but wherever in Europe we find great stature in a
population otherwise lacking in Nordic characters, we may be certain of
Nordic crossing, as in the case of a large proportion of the inhabitants of
Burgundy, of Switzerland, of the Tyrol, and of the Dalmatian Alps south to
Albania. These four unit characters, skull shape,
eye color, hair color, and stature, are sufficient to enable us to
differentiate clearly between the three main races of Europe, but if we wish
to discuss the minor variations and mixtures, we would have to go much
further and take up other proportions of the skull than the cephalic index,
as well as the shape and position of the eyes, and the proportions and shape
of the jaws and chin. The nose also is an exceedingly important
character. The original human nose was, of course, broad and bridgeless. This
trait is shown clearly in new-born infants who recapitulate in their
development the various stages of the evolution of the human genus. A
bridgeless nose with wide flaring nostrils is a very primitive character, and
is still retained by some of the larger divisions of mankind throughout the
world. It appears occasionally in white populations of European origin, but
is everywhere a very ancient, generalized, and low character. The high bridge and long, narrow nose, the
so-called Roman, Norman, or aquiline nose, is characteristic of the most
highly specialized races of mankind. While an apparently unimportant
character, the nose is one of the very best clews to racial origin, and in
the details of its form, and especially in the lateral shape of the nostrils,
is a race determinant of the greatest value. The lips, whether thin or fleshy or whether
cleancut or everted, are race characters. Thick, protruding, everted lips are
very ancient traits and are characteristic of primitive races. A high instep
also has long been esteemed an indication of patrician type, while the flat
foot is often the test of lowly origin. The absence or abundance of hair and beard
and the relative absence or abundance of body hair are characters of no
little value in classification. Abundant body hair is, to a large extent,
peculiar to populations of the very highest as well as the very lowest
species, being characteristic of the north European as well as of the
Australian savages. It merely means the retention in both these groups of a
very early and primitive trait which has been lost by the Negroes, Mongols,
and the Amerinds. The Nordic and Alpine races are far better
equipped with head and body hair than the Mediterranean, which is throughout
its range a glabrous or relatively naked race. The so-called red haired branch of the
Nordic race has special characters in addition to red hair, such as a
greenish cast of eye, a skin of peculiar texture tending either to great
clarity or to freckles, and certain peculiar temperamental traits. This was
probably a variety closely related to the blonds, and it first appears in
history in association with them. In the structure of the head hair of all
races of mankind we find a regular progression from extreme kinkiness to
lanky straightness, and this straightness or curliness depends on the shape
of the cross section of the hair itself. This cross section has three
distinct forms, corresponding with the most extreme divergences among human
species. While the three main European races are the
subject of this book, and while it is not the intention of the author to deal
with the other human types, it is necessary at this point to state that these
three European subspecies, are subdivisions of one of the primary groups or
subgenera of the genus Homo which, taken together, we must call the Caucasian
for lack of a better name. The great mass of the rest of mankind can
be roughly divided into the Negroes and Negroids, and the Mongols and
Mongoloids. The former apparently originated in south
Asia and entered Africa from the northeasterly corner of that continent.
Africa south of the Sahara is now the chief home of this race, though
remnants of Negroid aborigines are found throughout south Asia from India to
the Philippines, while the very distinct black Melanesians and the
Australoids lie farther to the east and south. A third subgenus of mankind includes the
round skulled Mongols and their derivatives, the Amerinds, or American
Indians. This group is essentially Asiatic, and occupies the centre and the
eastern half of that continent. A description of these Negroid and Mongoloid
subgenera and their derivatives, as well as of certain aberrant species of
man, lies outside of the scope of this work. In the consideration of this measurement,
the cross section of the hair in connection with these main subgenera, we
find that a permanent relation exists, and that each of the three primary
divisions of mankind is, in the shape of the cross section of its hair,
differentiated from the others. The cross section of the hair of the Negro
and Negroid races is a flat ellipse with the result that all the members of
this subgenus have kinky hair. The cross section of the hair of the
Mongols and their derivatives, the Amerinds, is a complete circle, and the
hair of this subgenus is perfectly straight and lank. The cross section of the hair of the
so-called Caucasians, including the Mediterranean, Alpine, and Nordic
subspecies, is an oval ellipse, and consequently is intermediate between the
cross sections of the Negroids and Mongoloids. Hair of this structure is wavy
or curly, never either kinky or absolutely straight, and is characteristic of
all the European populations, almost without exception. We have confined our discussion to the most
important unit characters, but there are many other valuable aids to
classification to be found in the proportions of the body and the relative
length of the limbs. For an example, it is a matter of common knowledge that
there occur among white women two distinct types in this latter respect, the
one long legged and short bodied, the other long bodied and short legged. All
such facts have a race value as yet not understood. Without going into further physical
details, it is probable that all relative proportions in the body, the
features, the skeleton, and the skull which are fixed and constant and lie
outside of the range of individual variation represent dim inheritances from
the past. Every human being unites in himself the blood of thousands of
ancestors, stretching back through thousands of years, superimposed upon a
prehuman inheritance of still greater antiquity, and the face and body of
every living man offer an intricate mass of hieroglyphs that science will
some day learn to read and interpret. We shall use the foregoing main unit
characters as the basis of our definition of race, and shall later call
attention to such temperamental and spiritual traits as seem to be associated
with distinct physical types. We shall only discuss European populations
and shall not deal with those quarters of the globe where the races of man
are such that other physical characters must be called upon to provide clear
definitions. A fascinating subject would open up if we
were to dwell upon the effect of racial combinations and disharmonies, as,
for instance, where the mixed Nordic and Alpine populations of Lombardy
retain the skull shape, hair color, and stature of the Alpine race, with the
light eye color of the Nordic race, or where the mountain populations along
the east coast of the Adriatic from the Tyrol to Albania have the stature of
the Nordic race and an Alpine skull and coloration. |
Continue on to Chapter 3 -
Race and Habitat